Smith's Bible Dictionary (1863)
Besides the ordinary uses to which stones were applied, we may mention that large stones were set up to commemorate any remarkable event. (Genesis 28:18; 35:14; 31:45; Joshua 4:9; 1 Samuel 7:12) Such stones were occasionally consecrated By anointing. (Genesis 28:18) Heaps of stones were piled up on various occasions, as in token of a treaty, (Genesis 31:47) or over the grave of some notorious offender.
(Joshua 7:26; 8:29; 2 Samuel 18:17) The “white stone” noticed in (Revelation 2:17) has been variously regarded as referring to the pebble of acquittal used in the Greek courts; to the lot cast in elections in Greece to both these combined; to the stones in the high priest’s breastplate; to the tickets presented to the victor at the public games; or, lastly, to the custom of writing on stones. The notice in (Zechariah 12:3) of the “burdensome stone” is referred by Jerome to the custom of lifting stones as an exercise of strength, comp. Ecclus.
6:21; but it may equally well be explained of a large corner-stone as a symbol of strength. (Isaiah 28:16) Stones are used metaphorically to denote hardness or insensibility, (1 Samuel 25:37; Ezekiel 11:19; 36:26) as well as firmness or strength. (Genesis 49:24) The members of the Church are called “living stones,” as contributing to rear that living temple in which Christ, himself “a living stone,” is the chief or head of the corner.
Schaff's Bible Dictionary
STONES, PRE'CIOUS. About twenty different names of such stones are found in the Bible. In many instances it is at present impossible to determine precisely what gem was intended by these names. This whole subject is one of great difficulty, for the mineralogy of ancient times was very vague and imperfect. The same word was often used for different gems or substances possessing some common property. Thus, "adamant" ("unconquerable") might mean steel, quartz, corundum, or any other very hard substance; "crystal" (kerach) meant either ice or transparent quartz.
The same ancient names were applied differently by different authorities, and even by the same writer. Even where a word has passed unchanged in form from Hebrew through Greek or Latin into modern use, it cannot be certainly concluded that the present application is the early one. The stones of the high priest's breastplate were engraved with the names of the tribes, Ex 28:21, but it is certain that at that time the art of cutting the harder gems was unknown.
According to Professor Maskelyne, a recognized authority, we must for this reason exclude from the breastplate the diamond, sapphire, emerald, and topaz. In place of these there may be substituted, respectively, rock-crystal (or chalcedony), lapis-lazuli, garnet, and chrysolite. The ruby and chrysoberyl would be too hard to claim a place in this list. Few diamonds were ever known of the size of these stones, which Josephus tells us were large, and which probably reached at least an inch square. T. See Jasper.
The sacred ornament of the high priest was probably broken up early in our era, but the gems which composed it are doubtless somewhere in existence in the Turkish empire or in Persia. It is not probable that all of these large engraved precious stones will always remain in obscurity. "What a source of rejoicing, both to archaeologists and, above all, to the religious world, will be the identification of even one of these venerable relics! " (See C. W. King's Precious Stones and Metals; art. ") In the very earliest times men set a high value on some of these minerals. Gen 2:12; 1 Chr 29:2.
The Tyrians traded in precious stones, which they obtained from India, Arabia, and Syria. Eze 27:16, Josh 11:22. Figuratively, the various gems are used in the Bible to emphasize such ideas as value, beauty, and durability, in Song 5:14; Isa 54:11-12; Lam 4:7; Rev 21:18-20; and passages already mentioned. STON'ING was the most general punishment inflicted on notorious criminals, and is usually meant where no other description of capital punishment is expressly mentioned, as in Lev 20:10.
Idolaters, blasphemers, Sabbath-breakers, incestuous persons, and stubborn or rebellious children were liable to it. The culprit was led out of the city and, as some have supposed, was bound. The witnesses against him were required to commence the work of death, and probably they divested themselves of clothing that it might be done more effectually. Acts 7:58.
At the murder of Stephen they committed the custody of their clothes to Saul, who was not improbably, from his talents and ardor, a ringleader of the mob and one of the most violent of the persecutors, and the multitude followed the example of the leaders until the victim was beaten to death. The Rabbinical writers say that the first stone was cast by one of the witnesses on the chest of the convict; and if this failed to cause death, the bystanders proceeded to complete the sentence.
Some think that the frequent taking up of stones by the Jews to throw at our Saviour, and the stoning of Stephen, Acts 7:59, and of Paul, Acts 14:19, were vestiges of a punishment called the "rebels" beating," inflicted by the mob, with fists, staves, or stones, on the excitement of the moment.