Easton's Bible Dictionary (1897)
Tilling the ground (Gen. 2:15; 4:2, 3, 12) and rearing cattle were the chief employments in ancient times. The Egyptians excelled in agriculture. And after the Israelites entered into the possession of the Promised Land, their circumstances favoured in the highest degree a remarkable development of this art. Agriculture became indeed the basis of the Mosaic commonwealth. The year in Palestine was divided into six agricultural periods:- I. SOWING
TIME. Tisri, latter half (beginning about the autumnal equinox.) Marchesvan. Kisleu, former half. Early rain due = first showers of autumn. II. UNRIPE TIME. Kisleu, latter half. Tebet. Sebat, former half. III. COLD SEASON. Sebat, latter half. Adar. [Veadar.] Nisan, former half. Latter rain due (Deut. 11:14; Jer. 5:24; Hos. 6:3; Zech. 10:1; James 5:7; Job 29:23). IV. HARVEST TIME. Nisan, latter half. (Beginning about vernal equinox. Barley green.
Passover.) Ijar. Sivan, former half., Wheat ripe. Pentecost. V. SUMMER (total absence of rain) Sivan, latter half. Tammuz. Ab, former half. VI. SULTRY SEASON Ab, latter half. Elul. Tisri, former half., Ingathering of fruits. The six months from the middle of Tisri to the middle of Nisan were occupied with the work of cultivation, and the rest of the year mainly with the gathering in of the fruits. The extensive and easily-arranged system of
irrigation from the rills and streams from the mountains made the soil in every part of Palestine richly productive (Ps. 1:3; 65:10; Prov. 21:1; Isa. 30:25; 32:2, 20; Hos. 12:11), and the appliances of careful cultivation and of manure increased its fertility to such an extent that in the days of Solomon, when there was an abundant population, “20,000 measures of wheat year by year” were sent to Hiram in exchange for timber (1 Kings 5:11),
and in large quantities also wheat was sent to the Tyrians for the merchandise in which they traded (Ezek. 27:17). The wheat sometimes produced an hundredfold (Gen. 26:12; Matt. 13:23). Figs and pomegranates were very plentiful (Num. 13:23), and the vine and the olive grew luxuriantly and produced abundant fruit (Deut. 33:24). Lest the productiveness of the soil should be exhausted, it was enjoined that the whole land should rest every seventh
year, when all agricultural labour would entirely cease (Lev. 25:1-7; Deut. 15:1-10). It was forbidden to sow a field with divers seeds (Deut. 22:9). A passer-by was at liberty to eat any quantity of corn or grapes, but he was not permitted to carry away any (Deut. 23:24, 25; Matt. 12:1). The poor were permitted to claim the corners of the fields and the gleanings. A forgotten sheaf in the field was to be left also for the poor. (See Lev. 19:9,
10; Deut. 24:19.) Agricultural implements and operations. The sculptured monuments and painted tombs of Egypt and Assyria throw much light on this subject, and on the general operations of agriculture. Ploughs of a simple construction were known in the time of Moses (Deut. 22:10; comp. Job 1:14). They were very light, and required great attention to keep them in the ground (Luke 9:62). They were drawn by oxen (Job 1:14), cows (1 Sam. 6:7), and
asses (Isa. 30:24); but an ox and an ass must not be yoked together in the same plough (Deut. 22:10). Men sometimes followed the plough with a hoe to break the clods (Isa. 28:24). The oxen were urged on by a “goad,” or long staff pointed at the end, so that if occasion arose it could be used as a spear also (Judg. 3:31; 1 Sam. 13:21). When the soil was prepared, the seed was sown broadcast over the field (Matt. 13:3-8). The “harrow”
mentioned in Job 39:10 was not used to cover the seeds, but to break the clods, being little more than a thick block of wood. In highly irrigated spots the seed was trampled in by cattle (Isa. 32:20); but doubtless there was some kind of harrow also for covering in the seed scattered in the furrows of the field. The reaping of the corn was performed either by pulling it up by the roots, or cutting it with a species of sickle, according to
circumstances. The corn when cut was generally put up in sheaves (Gen. 37:7; Lev. 23:10-15; Ruth 2:7, 15; Job 24:10; Jer. 9:22; Micah 4:12), which were afterwards gathered to the threshing-floor or stored in barns (Matt. 6:26). The process of threshing was performed generally by spreading the sheaves on the threshing-floor and causing oxen and cattle to tread repeatedly over them (Deut. 25:4; Isa. 28:28). On occasions flails or sticks were used
for this purpose (Ruth 2:17; Isa. 28:27). There was also a “threshing instrument” (Isa. 41:15; Amos 1:3) which was drawn over the corn. It was called by the Hebrews a moreg, a threshing roller or sledge (2 Sam. 24:22; 1 Chr. 21:23; Isa. 3:15). It was somewhat like the Roman tribulum, or threshing instrument. When the grain was threshed, it was winnowed by being thrown up against the wind (Jer. 4:11), and afterwards tossed with wooden scoops
(Isa. 30:24). The shovel and the fan for winnowing are mentioned in Ps. 35:5, Job 21:18, Isa
Smith's Bible Dictionary (1863)
This was little cared for by the patriarchs. The pastoral life, however, was the means of keeping the sacred race, whilst yet a family, distinct from mixture and locally unattached, especially whilst in Egypt. When grown into a nation it supplied a similar check on the foreign intercourse, and became the basis of the Mosaic commonwealth. “The land is mine,” (Leviticus 25:23) was a dictum which made agriculture likewise the basis of the
theocratic relation. Thus every family felt its own life with intense keenness, and had its divine tenure which it was to guard from alienation. The prohibition of culture in the sabbatical year formed a kind of rent reserved by the divine Owner. Landmarks were deemed sacred, (19:14) and the inalienability of the heritage was insured by its reversion to the owner in the year of jubilee; so that only so many years of occupancy could be sold.
(Leviticus 25:8-16; 23-35) Rain.—Water was abundant in Palestine from natural sources. (8:7; 11:8-12) Rain was commonly expected soon after the autumnal equinox. The period denoted by the common scriptural expressions of the “early” and the “latter rain,” (11:1; Jeremiah 5:24; Hosea 6:3; Zechariah 10:1; James 5:7) generally reaching from November to April, constituted the “rainy season,” and the remainder of the year the “dry
season.” Crops.—The cereal crops of constant mention are wheat and barley, and more rarely rye and millet(?). Of the two former, together with the vine, olive and fig, the use of irrigation, the plough and the harrow, mention is made ln the book of (Job 31:40; 15:33; 24:6; 29:19; 39:10) Two kinds of cumin (the black variety called fitches), (Isaiah 28:27) and such podded plants as beans and lentils may be named among the staple produce.
Ploughing and Sowing.—The plough was probably very light, one yoke of oxen usually sufficing to draw it. Mountains and steep places were hoed. (Isaiah 7:25) New ground and fallows, (Jeremiah 4:3; Hosea 10:12) were cleared of stones and of thorns, (Isaiah 5:2) early in the year, sowing or gathering from “among thorns” being a proverb for slovenly husbandry. (Job 5:5; Proverbs 24:30,31) Sowing also took place without previous ploughing, the
seed being scattered broad cast and ploughed in afterwards. The soil was then brushed over with a light harrow, often of thorn bushes. In highly-irrigated spots the seed was trampled by cattle. (Isaiah 32:20) Seventy days before the passover was the time prescribed for sowing. The oxen were urged on by a goad like a spear. (Judges 3:31) The proportion of harvest gathered to seed sown was often vast; a hundred fold is mentioned, but in such a way
as to signify that it was a limit rarely attained. (Genesis 26:12; Matthew 13:8) Sowing a field with divers seed was forbidden. (22:9) Reaping and Threshing.—The wheat etc., was reaped by the sickle or pulled by the roots. It was bound in sheaves. The sheaves or heaps were carted, (Amos 2:13) to the floor—a circular spot of hard ground, probably, as now, from 50 to 80 or 100 feet in diameter. (Genesis 1:10,11; 2 Samuel 24:16,18) On these the
oxen, etc., forbidden to be muzzled, (25:4) trampled out the grain. At a later time the Jews used a threshing sledge called morag, (Isaiah 41:15; 2 Samuel 24:22; 1 Chronicles 21:23) probably resembling the noreg, still employed in Egypt—a stage with three rollers ridged with iron, which, aided by the driver’s weight crushed out, often injuring, the grain, as well as cut or tore the straw, which thus became fit for fodder. Lighter grains were
beaten out with a stick. (Isaiah 28:27) The use of animal manure was frequent. (Psalms 83:10; 2 Kings 9:37; Jeremiah 8:2) etc. Winnowing.—The shovel and fan, (Isaiah 30:24) indicate the process of winnowing—a conspicuous part of ancient husbandry. (Psalms 35:5; Job 21:18; Isaiah 17:13) Evening was the favorite time, (Ruth 3:2) when there was mostly a breeze. The fan, (Matthew 3:12) was perhaps a broad shovel which threw the grain up against
the wind. The last process was the shaking in a sieve to separate dirt and refuse. (Amos 9:9) Fields and floors were not commonly enclosed; vineyard mostly were, with a tower and other buildings. (Numbers 22:24; Psalms 80:13; Isaiah 5:5; Matthew 21:33) comp. Judg 6:11 The gardens also and orchards were enclosed, frequently by banks of mud from ditches. With regard to occupancy, a tenant might pay a fixed money rent, (Song of Solomon 8:11) or a
stipulated share of the fruits. (2 Samuel 9:10; Matthew 21:34) A passer by might eat any quantity of corn or grapes, but not reap or carry off fruit. (23:24,25; Matthew 12:1) The rights of the corner to be left, and of gleaning [Corner; Gleaning], formed the poor man’s claim on the soil for support. For his benefit, too, a sheaf forgotten in carrying to the floor was to be left; so also with regard to the vineyard’ and the olive grove.
(Leviticus 19:9,10; 24:19)
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible (1898) & Schaff's Bible Dictionary
AG'RICULTURE. In its special sense, and as here employed, the term denotes the cultivation of grain and other field crops. In a broader meaning, the threefold business of many agriculturists includes, besides such cultivation, the keeping of flocks and herds, and horticulture. History. — To dress and keep the garden of Eden was the happy employment given to man at his creation. After the Fall, Adam was driven forth to till the ground as the
first farmer. This was also the employment of Cain, but Abel was a keeper of sheep. After the Flood, "Noah began to be an husbandman, and he planted a vineyard." The patriarchs and their descendants, till their settlement in Palestine, gave little attention to agriculture. Joseph's words comprehensively describe their occupation; "The men are shepherds, for their trade hath been to feed cattle." With the possession of the cultivated lands of the
Canaanites, the Hebrews adopted a more strictly agricultural life, and, in general, the methods of farming of those whom they conquered. Pastoral employments were, however, never wholly abandoned. The tribes east of the Jordan were possessed of "a very great multitude of cattle," and in Judaea and all the more hilly districts shepherds always abounded. Soil. — Palestine is divided agriculturally, and as to all its physical conditions, into four
districts : 1. The maritime plains, including the rich coast lands of Gaza, Sharon, etc., with a mild and equable climate, under which even the orange and banana flourish. 2. The valley of the Jordan, reaching from the waters of Merom to the southern end of the Dead Sea, having a tropical temperature. 3. The hill-country between these divisions eastward of Carmel, bisected by the rich plain of Jezreel, and bosoming many fertile vales, such as
those of Nazareth, Shechem, Samaria, Hebron, but often rising, especially southward, into bleak moors and highlands, where snow sometimes falls in winter. 4. Peræa, the rolling and often mountainous plateau east of the Jordan valley, not very different in climate from the last division, but in soil more fertile. In this last region Dr. Merrill reports the tillable area of the Hauran (ancient Bashan) to be 150 by 40 miles in extent, and one vast
natural wheat-field. Here he has "seen a peasant plough a furrow as straight as a line, one and even two miles long." In Argob and Trachonitis he saw one of the largest lava-beds in the world, covering 400 or 500 square miles, and the source of inexhaustible fertility. Of Palestine west of the Jordan, which is less in extent than the State of Vermont, Captain Warren says: "The soil is so rich, the climate so varied, that within ordinary limits it
may be said that the more people it contained the more it may. Its productiveness will increase in proportion to the labor bestowed on the soil, until a population of fifteen millions may be accommodated there." By others we are told that the very sand of the shore is fertile if watered. The soil of Palestine is enriched by the disintegration of the rocks, which are commonly limestone, often quite chalky. Seasons. — Of these there are
practically but two — the rainy and the dry — nearly divided from each other by the vernal and autumnal equinoxes. The showers begin to fall in November, at the latest, and the rains of the winter months, except it be February, are heavy. These are "the former rain" of Scripture, which rarely fails, while "the latter rain" of March and early April is more uncertain; and as the filling of the ears of grain depends upon it, this "latter rain"
is eagerly expected. Job 29:23 ; Zech 10:1. Storms in Palestine are ordinarily brought by the west or south-west wind. 1 Kgs 18:44; Luke 12:54. Without question, this country was in Bible times better supplied with forests and orchards than now, and its climate was more humid and equable. The hills were generally terraced and provided with reservoirs, as abundant ruins testify, and the sudden torrents, which now wash away what little soil they
find, were, by these means and others, dispersed and absorbed by the ground. Many of the most rugged districts were covered with vineyards and olive-orchards, so that Deut 8:7-9 is but a literal description of what the land once was, and, in particular localities, still remains. Unlimited extortion, in addition to heavy taxes upon every crop and every tree, even to the oak upon the hills, the unrestrained pillage of the harvests by Bedouins, with
other causes, are fast abandoning this fertile land to denudation, drought, and the desert. Calendar of Labor. — There have been few changes in the art or instruments of agriculture in Western Asia since ancient times. The present tense may therefore ordinarily be used for the past. Ploughing and sowing grain begin with the rainy season, and, as the ground does not freeze, continue, when the weather permits, till March. Then are sown the podded
and garden plants, the melons, and all the crops which demand a warmer soil. Barley-harvest quickly follows the cessation of the latter rain, and then wheat-harvest. The remaining crops having one after another been brought to perfection and gathered, the droughts of summer now end most agricultural operations till the ingathering of the fig, the olive, and the grape in August and September. Occasionally, during the busy season, the husbandman
tents upon the land he cultivates. Ordinarily, his home is in some village or walled town, perhaps miles away from his farm. In the early morning he walks or rides to his labor, the patient ass or the camel bearing his light ploughs and other implements. Thus in the parable the "sower went forth to sow." So varied is the character of the soil and climate within short ranges as often greatly to prolong the season of planting and harvesting. Grain
frequently requires replanting or replacing with other crops. Where there are permanent streams or opportunities for irrigation, sowing follows harvest, crop succeeds crop through the entire year, and the promises of Lev 26:5 and Am 9:13 are verified. Crops. — In this fertile soil, with an almost unparalleled variety of climate and exposure, between such points as Jericho, Hermon, and Gaza, there is opportunity for the cultivation of nearly all
plants either of the torrid or temperate zones; and we find in the Bible, for such a book, a very extended botanic list. The variety of cultivated species was, however, much less than now. Wheat, barley, millet, and spelt (not rye) were the only cereals. Beans and lentiles were staples, while flax, cucumbers, fitches, cummin, and the onion family were often extensively cultivated. Jewish writers mention peas, lettuce, endives, and melons as
ancient garden plants. Fruit- and nut-bearing trees were cultivated for the most part within enclosures. Methods and Instruments. — As population increased, irrigation, by conducting water to the crops from brooks and reservoirs, became more common. The painful Egyptian labor of raising a supply from a lower level was rarely necessary. Such passages as Jer 9:22 show that the use of dung as manure was not uncommon. In Jer 4:3; Hos 10:12 there is
reference to the practice of leaving the land fallow for a time. The former passage, with many others, reminds us of the great variety and abundance of thorny plants in Palestine, said to be one mark of a fertile soil. Rotation of crops seems to have been practised to some extent. The instruments of agriculture are particularly described under their respective titles. Oriental ploughing does not turn a sod, but merely scratches the earth to the
depth of three or four inches at most, which is all the primitive and light plough and the small cattle of the East can do. Often — always in the case of new ground — a second ploughing crosswise was practised; and this is referred to by the word "break" in Isa 28:24. Steep hill-sides were prepared for planting with the mattock or hoe, an iron-pointed instrument of wood resembling in shape the modern "pick." Isa 7:25. Good farmers ploughed
before the rains, that the moisture might be more abundantly absorbed. The seed, being scattered broadcast upon the soil, was ordinarily ploughed in, as is still the custom. Light harrowing, often with thorn-bushes, completed the process. In wet ground the seed was trampled in by cattle. Isa 32:20. After its planting there was commonly little further labor bestowed upon the crop till it was ready for the harvest. Weeds were removed by hand when
it was safe to do so. Matt 13:28, 1 Chr 2:29. Irrigation was sometimes necessary. As the ingathering drew near, the fields must be protected by the watchman in his lodge from the wild boar and other beasts, and from human marauders. The newly scattered seed and the ripening crop also required to be defended against great flocks of birds. Matt 13:4. Grain when ripe was, in more ancient times, plucked up by the roots. Later, it was reaped by a
sickle resembling our own, either the ears alone being cut off or the whole stalk. The sheaves were never made into shocks ; but this word in Scripture use denotes merely a loose An Egyptian Threshing-Floor (From Eiehn.) heap of them. Laborers, animals, or carts bore the harvest to the threshing-floor, where, as elsewhere described, the grain was separated from the ears and winnowed. More delicate seeds were beaten out with a stick. Isa 28:27.
Peculiarities. — Agriculture was recognized and regulated by the Mosaic law as the chief national occupation. Inalienable ownership — under God — of the soil was a fundamental provision, and renting the ground till the year of jubilee was alone possible. "The land shall not be sold for ever; for the land is mine; for ye are strangers and sojourners with me." Lev 25:8-10, Lev 25:23-35. The encouragement such a provision gave to agricultural
improvements cannot be exaggerated. That the land must rest one year in seven was another remarkable and most beneficent requirement. Lev 25:1-7. The Jews were forbidden to sow a field with divers seeds. Deut 22:9. For example, wheat and lentiles must not be mixed, nor areas of them meet. The rabbis describe with minuteness how to vary the position of crops, yet avoid actual contact between them, and prescribe at least three furrows' margin
between such divers kinds. The yoking together of an ox and ass was prohibited, but is common enough among the present inhabitants. Horses were never used for farm-work. Vineyards are enclosed in walls, and gardens are usually protected in the same way, or by banks of mud taken from ditches. Otherwise, in agricultural districts the absence of all fences or enclosures is, and always was, in striking contrast to our own practice. A brook or a cliff
may serve as a boundary, but ordinarily large stones almost covered by the soil are the landmarks. Deut 19:14. Exceedingly beautiful to the eye are the vast fertile areas of Palestine, checkered only by cultivation. As cattle find pasture through most of the year, there are no proper barns to be seen. Grass is cut in watered places with a sickle for "soiling," and stock is fed with this or with grain when the fields are dried up. More commonly,
during periods of scarcity, the flocks and herds are driven to other feeding grounds. Booths are sometimes provided for inclement weather, and at night cattle are driven into caves or folds. The permission to pluck and eat a neighbor's grapes or grain, but not to put the former in a vessel nor use a sickle on the latter, is not to be forgotten. Deut 23:24,Deut 23:25. There was also merciful provision that the poor might glean in the vineyard and
harvest-field, and that something should be left for them. Lev 19:9, 1 Kgs 16:10 ; Deut 24:19. Altogether, the agricultural laws of the Pentateuch have been unapproached in their wisdom and beneficence by any similar legislation on record. See Garden, Mowing, Plough, Seasons, Thresh, Vines, etc.